Women and Barriers to their Financial well being/ Barriers for women in relation to financial security - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2365 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? 2.2 Women and Barriers to their Financial well being/ Barriers for women in relation to financial security There are different circumstances faced by women that may create barriers in becoming financially secured in their lives (Morris, 2007). Formal Financial barriers A key constraint for women is the access to adequate financial resources for the success of their business (Minniti, 2009; Jordi, 2009). Different researchers have made the attempt to see how financial institutions behave towards women while granting funds. Empirical studies have established the influence of financial literacy on financial behavior. People with low financial literacy are more likely to have problems with debts (Lusardi Tofano, 2009). Apparently, debt financing is a challenge for women entrepreneurs (Buttner and Rosen, 1992) because of unequal treatment by debt providers, lack of experience in dealing with lending institutions and insufficient credit history and rating (Bel court et al, 1991; Goffee Scase, 1983; Hisrich Brush, 1984). As an example, Kenyan women are almost invisible to formal financial institutions they receive less than 10 percent of commercial credits (Mahbubultlag Human Development Center, 2000). According to the UNIDO report (1995), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“despite evidence that womanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s loan repayment rates are higher than menà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s, womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s still face more difficulties in obtaining credit,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  often due to the discriminatory attitudes of banks and informal lending groups. In developing countries, women have limited access to funds as they are located in poor rural communities with fewer opportunities to borrow (Starcher, 2008). These women continue to suffer from poor enforcement of financial rights and the existence of poor access to financial resources long with the rigidity of collateral requirements and heavy paperwork are further impediments to women entrepreneurs (Stevenson a nd Jarillo, 2003). Not surprisingly, women struggle for financial assistance as well for their own use. In most regions of the world, fewer women held a account at a formal financial institutiton whereas Sub-Saharan Africa, women are more likely to use an informal saving clubs and not a formal financial institution to save as compared to men. Also, financial inclusion is low in Mexico among women whereby only 22% women have bank accounts (Demirguc-kunt and Klapper, 2012). On the whole, proper access to financial services provides opportunity for improving womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s businesses and the economy of the entire communities and countries. Informal barriers Besides, the home environment plays a role in financial literacy. Parents have the primary responsibility to inculcate financial habits and behaviors to children when they are young (Into, 2003). They have the greatest influence on the way children handle money and instill the attitudes their children have towards saving (Eikmeier, 2007). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Children learn financial management behavior through observation and participation and through intentional instruction by socialized agents (family, siblings, spouse, peers, schools, workplace, media and culture)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  (Eikmeier, 2007, p.6). Social beliefs à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“commonly fail to value womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s contribution to relationships and as a result, women may fail to fight for their financial rights as they themselves lack experience of this recognitionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  (Branigan, 2004, p.16). From a gender outlook, financial attitudes, knowledge and behavior differ for both male and female due to different financial satisfaction during childhood (Lim, Teo and Loo, 2003). In nearly every culture around the world, girls are brought up to be the caretakers while boys are grown up with the expectation to be the breadwinner (Wilhelm, Varcoe Fridrich, 1993). As a result, differences in gender roles and expectations woul d provide different strategies to the financial socialization of boys and girls and consequently, the different levels of financial knowledge among them (FAlahati Pain, 2011). For example, in Nigeria, there is a large power distance and high masculinity and where customs place the obligation on the male child to be the economic provider, emotional protector and leader (Hofstede, 1980) Astonishingly, women may be working and supporting their family financially, still they are not considered as breadwinner (Yodanis, 2007). Women should be less involve in income earning activities but rather should be humble and modest amid the priority given to their roles as wives and mothers (Zakaria, 2001). The interest of the family members is a determinant factor in the realization of women folk business aspirations (Stevenson and Jarillo, 2003). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Having primary responsibilities for children, home and older family members, very few women can devote all their time and energies to t heir businessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  (Starcher, 2008) A potential explanation for womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s lower financial literacy may have to do with specialization of tasks within the household. The idea that men acquire greater financial knowledge and skills than women because they specialize in financial decision-making within the household is consistent with the fact that men tend to display higher financial knowledge than women across a wide range of countries. Hsu (2011) finds that financial literacy of older married women in the US increases as they approach widowhood, thus supporting the idea of household division of labor. Women are more likely to have a budget and to keep track of their finances which are a crucial aspect of financially savvy behavior that has to do with short-term money management. Keeping a close watch on every-day financial expenses is a first step in building long-term financial security and avoiding unsustainable levels of debt. In many countries, women have an important role in household money management in large share of couples. As stated by Chen (2002), women have been traditionally responsible for childcare and daily maintenance of activities like household budgets and bill payments. As a result, they are less likely to save for their retirement and more likely to spend their money on children and families. The results were in line with the OECD INFE surveys and other national studies showing that women appear to be better than men at short-term money management behavior. For instance, women in Australia are much more likely than men to regularly keep a budget for their day-to-day finances and more likely to think about ways to reduce their spending (Australian Government and Financial Literacy Foundation, 2008). Results from both the 2006 and 2009 Financial knowledge survey in New Zealand suggest women have used written/electronic records to be in more control of their expenses. Others authors have also argued that women h ave marginally outperformed men on keeping track of their financial affairs (McKay, 2011; Atkinson et al, 2006). However, Evidence from the OECD INFE survey shows that both partners are jointly responsible for day-to-day money management in a majority of households across several countries, weakening the idea of specialization to financial decision-making. Equally, Fonseca et al (2010) and Bucher-koenen et al (2012), studying the US and Dutch population respectively do not find support for the specialization hypothesis. Another challenge for women is that most of them do not receive any education in finance until they are divorced or widowed (Bach, 2002). Studies have shown that women show limited interest in money matters because they feel they have too little knowledge to engage in these issues. It is reasonable to assume that lower access to education can affect opportunities to improve financial literacy. Lusardi (2007) noted that many households are unfamiliar with even the most basic economic concepts needed to make saving and investment decisions. Researchers (Beal, Delpachtra, 2003) assert that financially educated people would know how to manage their money, understand how financial institutions work, and possess a range of analytical skills. Besides, they would know how they should handle their financial affairs and how to be responsible financially. Eikmeier (2007) pointed out that financial education can lead to financial knowledge and positive changes in attitudes, motivation and planned behavior. Women generally have less knowledge about personal finance topics whereby education and experience can impact the financial literacy of women/For women and men, education will improve their financial education /financial literacy can change with education (Chen, 2002). Having a University degree relates to how a woman manages money with a spouse and they are more likely to be involved in the decision making process with their spouse (Yodanis, 2007). K itching and Woldie (2004) note that women entrepreneurs in Nigeria are often inhibited by their relatively low level of education and skills and this generally limits their access to various support services. Goldsmith and Goldsmith (1997) suggest that women score worse than men because in general they are less interested in the topics of investment and personal finance and consequently use financial services more seldom. The term financial literacy is in itself a barrier because it implies that a person may be financially illiterate. Lusardi (2000) defined financial illiteracy as having little knowledge while Bennleim (1994) referred it as a lacking experience in daily financial matters. In a large number of countries, women have lower financial knowledge than men. This is a robust piece of evidence as it holds across developed and developing countries in all regions of the worlds and using different survey instruments, only in very small number of cases gender differences are n ot significant and in a no country women were found to be more knowledgeable than men. Financial illiteracy is widespread and severe among certain groups including women and older Americans (Census, 2000). Empirical research have been carried out to measure the degree and spread of financial literacy among women. Lusardi and Micthell (2007a) argued that less educated people comprising of females, African-American and Hispanics display low financial knowledge which impacted their decisions financially. Since these people were illiterate in basic financial knowledge concepts, they were unsuccessful in planning their retirement period, had low stock market participation and had fewer borrowings. Similarly, an unequal proportion number of women was categorised as being financially illiterate by Hogarth and Hilgerth (2002). Also, female respondents had been known to score lower marks in financial literacy tests (Chen Volpe, 1998; Murphy, 2005; Volpe, Chen Pavlicko, 1996). In the same w ay, women have obtained less correct answers on six numeracy and financial knowledge questions (Alpha Research, 2010; Azerbaijan Micro-Finance Association, 2009). Based on short tests of financial knowledge, in general, all studies portrayed that women have lower levels of financial knowledge in most countries. Consequently, both men and women were found to have low financial knowledge in Russia and East Germany (Bucher-Koenen and Lusardi, 2011; Klapper and Panos, 2011). Limited access to education not only reduce womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial well-being per se, but also limit the extent to which women can improve their knowledge, confidence and skills about economic and financial issues. Money as power/Income Next, making financial choices and discussions concerning money and financial issues can be an emotional area for women. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Money, which may consider a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"measure of successà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, is often a taboo topicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  (Into, 200 3, P.826). Women tend to attach sentiment to money. Since they were raised as being caregivers and not breadwinners, women are seen to be more uncomfortable talking about money and tend to focus on doing well as opposed to getting rich. As an example, there are different emotions and that often are attached to the issues of saving and investing like the need to save for the family or providing their children with things they need or want. Furthermore, emotions that are attached to money often determine if they will live their lives in comfort or poverty (Bach, 2002; Frankel, 2008). There are also many excuses they use to become less involved in their financial well-being. Some of them include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“someone else will do it, I am not interested in money matters, I do not have enough, I do not have enough time and I just do not want to think about ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  (Frankel, 2008). Generally, women tend to undervalue their abilities and talents, have less enthusiasm for, lower confidence in and less willingness to learn about personal finance topics (Chen, 2002, p.289). Meeting the family needs is often the contributing factor to the delay in addressing their financial situation. The confidence level of a woman in her ability to make decisions is the difference between knowing something and doing something about it (Foundation, 1998). Results from several sources suggest that women are less confident than men about their financial knowledge. This evidence is largely based on the fact that they are more likely than men to answer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“do not knowà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  to financial knowledge questions rather than attempt to answer it (OECD INFE Survey, 2013). In addition, women tend to have lower confidence than men also in their ability with financial issues. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Women Understanding Moneyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  study highlighted that women are not very willing to learn more about everyday money management issues like budgeting, saving, dea ling with credit and managing debt where they felt more confident. However the study found that women thought it was important to learn more complex money management issues such as planning for the financial future, understanding rights and responsibilities/understanding financial language and ensuring enough money for retirement. Despite acknowledging the importance to learn, significant number of Australian women held attitudes and beliefs that could limit improvements in money management knowledge and skills. Women were more likely than men to find money stressful, uncomfortable or boring and less likely to feel in control of their financial situation (Australian Government and Financial Literacy Foundation, 2008). Lastly, the concept of risk aversion is an area of concern which relate them to financial decision making. Though there has been some progress in womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial knowledge and confidence in the last 8 years, women still worry about their financial future and are not sure what they need to do (Prudential, 2008). Croson, Gneezy (2004) show that there is a significant difference in risk-taking between men and women. Women are more risk-averse than men and this low-risk tolerance attitude prevent them from accumulating adequate retirement funds and reaching their long term financial goals (Loibl, 2007). Womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial literacy would be enhanced by women becoming more risk tolerant and gaining confidence in their math ability and financial decisions (Glass, 1998). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Women want less worry, less aggressive investing, more security and predictability, more simplicity and easier access to understandable financial information (Eikmeier, 2007, p.6). Women exhibit relatively more risk aversion in financial decision-making than men. Charness and Gneezy (2011) conducted a meta-analysis of nine different studies on risk-taking in investment. They find a very consistent result that women invest less and thu s appear to be more financially risk averse than men. Similarly, other researchers reported that women are more risk averse to investment than men (Chen Volpe, Bajtesmit Bernasek,1996, Powell and Ansic, 1997; Agnew et al, 2007). Womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial risk aversion and low confidence about their financial skills may reduce their propensity to profit from opportunities in the financial marketplace by limiting their willingness to take financial risks Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Women and Barriers to their Financial well being/ Barriers for women in relation to financial security" essay for you Create order

William Shakespeare Greatest Playwright of All - 1554 Words

William Shakespeare: Greatest Playwright of All William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was a British poet and playwright, he was well known as the greatest writer of all time, he was often called the Bard of Avon.Although many facts of his life remain unknown, his poems and plays are unique and have timeless theme that touch everyone’s heart, and are still widely studied and performed in today’s society. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, England enjoyed a time of prosperity and stability that led to a new era for England. Shakespeare’s works epitomize arts of the Elizabethan Epoch; through his uses of beautiful and poetic language, iambic pentameter is nearly always used in his style of poetry. Shakespeare wrote about timeless themes†¦show more content†¦Likewise, the cultural stories of the people were once again being told in public, and playwrights, including Shakespeare, were widely performed. An good example would be Midsummer Nights Dream, Shakespeare used ancient Celtic and Greek mythological fig ures such as Puck, Oberon, Theseus and placed them in a different time and place, but with their original characteristics. Other plays, such as Romeo and Juliet make references to popular mythological figures like Queen Mab to make the story fit better into their world. Since people of all classes attended plays, playwrights needed to use stories, characters and words that would appeal to everyone. England in the time before the reign of Elizabeth I was under a state of religious turmoil. When Elizabeth I ascended to the throne, she banned the performances all religious plays and stories (except in Church) to help stop the violence over religion. Popular plays were not longer be performed, and playwrights were now free to concentrate on secular stories. They still contained some elements of religion, as did everyday life in Elizabethan England, but it was not the primary focus, nor did it play a particularly important part of the story. Conventions from Medieval religious theatre found its way into Elizabethan Theatre, however, and Shakespeare made good use of them during their performances, such as using the trap doorShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare: Greatest Playwright of All1568 Words   |  7 PagesWilliam Shakespeare: Greatest Playwright of All William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was a British poet and playwright, he was well known as the greatest writer of all time, he was often called the Bard of Avon.Although many facts of his life remain unknown, his poems and plays are unique and have timeless theme that touch everyone’s heart, and are still widely studied and performed in today’s society. 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Listening Assignment free essay sample

This piece is relatively long compared to the music written in previous periods such as Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque. Beethoven is known to have stretched the musical forms of the Classical period, which were already different in nature and length to those in previous periods. This piece appears to be more distorted than other symphonies In the same period; even music in the previous periods almost always followed certain guidelines.The music in the symphony is performed by an orchestra, so there are no vocals and instruments are only responsible for the music. Brass, Strings, woodwinds, and percussion all participate in the creation of sound. There Is constant Interaction between the different instruments. A symphony In the classical period consisted of four movements. The four movements of this symphony are Allegro con brio, Dante con motto, Scherzo, and Allegro. Each of the four movements will be analyzed more specifically. The first movement is in sonata-allegro form, which contains three parts: exposition, development, and recapitulation. We will write a custom essay sample on Listening Assignment or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In this symphony, Beethoven has revived two musical ideas in the first part of the movement that have the same melody and rhythm, yet different keys. The first musical Idea Is in a low pitched key and It Is repeated during the exposition. However, the second musical Idea sounds In a higher pitched key. The following stage is the development stage, where parts of each musical idea in the exposition are played both individually and combined. This part Is said to be tonally unstable because the keys used often vary from those contrasting each other In the exposition. I would have expected the transition from he development part to the recapitulation to be clearer, however. Beethoven seemed to give more length to the development part as it was one long recapitulation of the two contrasting ideas yet not under strict guidelines. The first movement has been very effective In terms of the emotions It drives. There has been a contrast of angry low pitched emotions and the peaceful high pitched emotions, all within one musical idea of the exposition. I feel there is a battle of conflicting emotions taking place within and between the two contrasting ideas.As a start, such contrast Is felt in the USIA due to changes In dynamics. There Is a louder and softer sound contrasted. Each of these dynamics are responsible for an emotion, where the louder notes represent angry emotions and the softer notes the more peaceful emotions. Timbre is another important contributor to emotional effect, as brass instruments have been used for the low pitched notes and strings for the higher pitched notes. The increase In tempo may reflect the developments taking place In the conflict of emotions, reflecting on which emotion will end up superior in the end. Eel that in the first 1 OFF ere long and there is no longer the strong distinction that existed in the beginning between the two keys. In the second movement, which is also in sonata-allegro form, Beethoven relies on large changes in dynamics to a higher degree. The movement begins with more emphasis on woodwinds and the violin; the same melody was played with few lariats caused by additions from other instruments. It is also evident that this movement is much slower than the previous one. This creates a sense of fulfillment for each emotion because there is more space for expression of both anger and usefulness. The third movement, known as the scherzo, was in ternary form where the scherzo is followed by a trio, then the scherzo once more. A very significant part of this dance movement was the very soft segment that is also relatively the softest of all notes in the symphony. This may be a sign that there is a weakness in the strength of the expression of peaceful emotion; anger may be the dominant emotion n this segment despite the soft dynamics.The fourth movement is polyphonic. There is a lot of variation in rhythm and melody to the point that its not clear whether the pavement is in rondo or sonata-allegro form. The movement is not in presto, which is evident because it is not faster than first movement (allegro). There is also frequent use of imitative polyphony. Imitative polyphony may specifically be more significant in this final movement as it shows potential for a stable and cooperative interaction among the two emotions.This symphony by Beethoven did not immediately become one of his most famous symphonies. Instead, it was the third symphony Errors and the second movement of the seventh symphony that were more frequently performed and demanded. Over he course of the 19th century there has been a gradual increase in the acceptance of symphony no. Gs greatness, as more orchestra began to play it. Source: http://www. NP. Org/templates/story/story. PH? Steroid=5473894 Knolling Amadeus Mozart, 1756-1791. Classical Period. Piano Concerto No. 19, K. 59 Mozart concerto is similar in duration to Beethovens symphony, yet it consists of only three movements. The first movement is in sonata-allegro form as well, while the last movement is usually in rondo which is possible for symphonies as well. Therefore, the main difference in structure is the omission of the minuet/scherzo. This concertos first movement is in sonata-allegro form, but the contrast between two musical ideas is in the same sense the contrast between the whole orchestra playing at one point (tutu) and the piano playing at another point (solo).It felt like the first few minutes introduced the orchestra and the piano separately playing the same melody. As the first movement began to develop, Mozart used a polyphonic technique to create a serene nature around the interactions between the piano and Nodding. That combination of instruments helped give the polyphonic nature a happy and Joyful feeling. Despite the harmony lacking conjunction frequently, the different timbre of the instruments used along with the small range of frequencies did not make me sense instability and t ension. At certain stages, the second movement is much slower than the first. I think that despite the first movement creating a serene and happy mood, the second movement is able to reemphasize that feeling yet in a calmer manner. It can be related to the contrast of a man walking around in the surroundings of a serene location with a smile on his face, and a man sitting down in the same location with the same emotional expression. Instead of having a walking pace as in the first movement, the man sits down and creates a calmer nature to the music.There is also an evident lack brass instruments, with the interactions mainly between the piano and strings. At some points there is imitative polyphony between the piano and the orchestras melody. The tutu and piano seem to be responding to each other in emotional harmony, not necessarily the harmony of notes. Such a Joyful and happy mood is therefore emphasized by the coexisting nature of each instruments sound. The third and final movement is in rondo form, with the refrain repeatedly played y the whole orchestra or smaller groups of instruments.Mozart has played this initial theme repeatedly in different timbres, giving the listener the sense that there is a more common and agreed upon emotion. This movement is also different in the sense that the piano plays different melodies than that of the orchestra and does not try to imitate their melody. Despite claiming that there is a common emotion expressed by the orchestra, the piano is more separated than in any other movement. What caused this separation is not known, but the pianos melody has a ore individually stronger nature, possibly a state reached as a result of more coherent nature of the tutu.

Learning English as a Second Language for Chinese Students

Learning English as a second language, students should pay much attention to the relationship between environment and language as these factors are very important. Students should learn not only the language itself, but pay much attention to the history of the country, its customs and values.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Learning English as a Second Language for Chinese Students specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This paper is aimed at Chinese students who have just got down to learning English as a second language. These students should know the pitfalls and the difficulties they are going to face. Those who have never learnt another language are not really aware of the situation they are going to face with. Another language is not just a collection of the symbols which should be arranged in an appropriate order, it is another culture which may be understood only when collaboration is observed. Only working t ogether, only trying to understand the main idea of the American and British nature Chinese students will get the main idea of the language, will be able to learn it. Communication and cooperation with native speakers is exactly what is meant. Students should understand that they have great opportunity to cooperate with native speakers either in the centers or in other particular places, such as social networks, etc. Therefore, it may be concluded that cooperation and the opportunity to speak with the native speakers are really important factors for becoming a good learner. This essay is created for those who have just begun to study English as a second language as they are to know the peculiarities of the learning process and the difficulties they are to overcome in the future to succeed. Works Cited Facebook. Facebook.com. 2011. Web. Love, Tim. What is culture? 2008. Yomiury: Media Kit. Web. This article on Learning English as a Second Language for Chinese Students was written and submitted by user Jayda Leach to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Man Sized Job Essays - Sharlot Hall, British Poetry,

Man Sized Job Man-Sized Job was written by Sharlot Hall (1870-1943). It is a poem that defines a woman's work from a man's point of view. Poems like this were uncommon in the late 1800's ? early 1900's, especially if women wrote them. The two aspects of this poem that I would like to analyze are the vocabulary used and the male chauvinistic point-of-view. If it weren't for these two exaggerated aspects, the poem would not have as strong of a meaning. The vocabulary used in this poem is far form proper. It is an exaggeration used to make men sound less intelligent than they think they are. Sharlot Hall wants men to sound less intelligent in this poem because the poem is from a man's point of view on what a woman's work should be. It is obvious to anyone that reads this poem that Hall is completely disagrees with the typical male point of view on what women should and should not do. Another reason for the language that is used is to make the men sound uneducated. Hall is hinting to her audience that women are actually smarter than men. Although she is taking a playful shot at men, the way she goes about it makes this poem enjoyable for both sexes. The chauvinistic point-of-view in this poem is obvious. It is greatly exaggerated so that Hall can get her point across to her audience clearly. She also uses it to get the audience on her side of the issue. This is a powerful tool that can be used. When someone reads a poem and they take they authors point-of-view on a subject, the poem becomes that much more interesting. This adds to the entertainment value of the poem. After all, the purpose of a poem should be to entertain and catch the interest of an audience. Hall uses this technique to her advantage. Her use of the chauvinistic point-of-view is probably the key to this poem being great. The two aspects of this poem that I analyzed in this paper were essential to the success of this poem. Both the vocabulary used by Hall and the male chauvinistic point-of-view expressed were essential in getting her point across to her audience. Although both tools were exaggerated dramatically, it was necessary for the reason behind the poem. In my opinion, this poem was written for one reason. This reason is to simply make fun of men and their attitudes. Hall did an excellent job. Poetry Essays

History of Management Thought

History of Management Thought The Hawthorne experiment remains one of the most debated and controversial studies conducted in the field of management thought that has received both praise and criticism at the same time (Wren and Bedeian 2009).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on History of Management Thought specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Much of the criticism regarding the study revolves around Elton Mayo, a researcher from Harvard Business School. The study was initiated by researchers from Western Electric and Harvard University and its main aim was to examine the impact of different environmental variables on the production of a group of workers at Western Electric Company (Gale 2004). The workers were divided into control group and test group. Variables were introduced to the test group while the controlled group worked under constant conditions. Pennock and Stoll, the engineers in charge of the experiment, first began manipulating the lightin g of the test group. The performance of test group increased with better lighting but the performance of the controlled group increased as well to which no changed were made in the lighting conditions (Gillespie 1988). The experimenters then reduced the lighting of the test group but this did not have any effect on the increasing productivity of both the groups even when the lighting was made so dim that it was becoming difficult to see (Gillespie 1988). The researchers concluded that the lighting had no significant effect on the performance of the workers and that psychology of the workers was the only factor influencing the result of the research (Zerega 2008). The main purpose of the experiment was to improve the overall experience of work of the employees to increase the productivity of the workers. The experiment, however, initially failed to do so and was unable to recognize factors that had any impact on the productivity of the workers. The conclusion made by the experimenter s, that there was a psychological factor involved in the motivation of the workers, came as a shock in the management thought because prior to this study it was believed economic interest was the only factor responsible for individual motivation. It was concluded that the reason why the productivity of the workers increased was because these women were given attention for the first time and they were trying to please the experimenters no matter what the working conditions were (Gillespie 1988).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More After that a number of studies were conducted to study the behaviour of the workers and to discover how the workers can be motivated so maximise productivity. A number of factors came to the surface while these studies were conducted. The three findings of the Hawthorne studies which I would like to exploit as a manager would be the Mica-Split ting Test group (1928 – 1930), Plant-wide Interview program (1928 – 1931), and Bank Wiring Observation group (1931 – 1932) (Rice 2010). The Mica-Splitting test group was established after the researchers found that the performance of the workers improved when they were rewarded for their good performance (Rice 2010). The main purpose of this study was to find out whether the pay scale of the workers had any impact on the performance of the workers. The researchers introduced different variables to the work environment while they pay was kept constant. Researchers discovered that the performance of the workers increased by about 15 per cent (Brannigan and Zwerman 2001). The researchers established that factors other than pay have a significant effect on the performance of the workers and the social conditions played a very important role in the performance of the workers (Brannigan and Zwerman 2001). This study can be used by the management to discover other fact ors which increase the productivity of the workers without increasing their pay. The plant-wide interview program was conducted from 1928 to 1931. The Western Electric company wanted to avoid any possible conflict between their members and to achieve this, the personnel director of Western Electric said that â€Å"[The management] must really know what the employee thinks, what are the worker’s satisfactions and aspirations, andset up management policies that will synchronize with the worker’s viewpoint and compel thereby this cooperation† (Cohen 1990 pp.173). To achieve this, the researchers conducted plant-wide interviews of the employees to hear the problems of the workers and improve the worker-management relationship (Swanson 2006). The researchers discovered that attention paid to the employees by the supervisors had a positive effect on the work of the employees and increased their productivity (Swanson 2006). By using this technique, the overall producti vity of a company can be improved without causing any extra costs to the company. Another important finding of the Hawthorne experiments that I would like to use as a manager is that ofBank Wiring observation group conducted in 1931-32. Nine men were selected for the bank wiring observation group. They were being paid on the piecework incentive pay system, i.e. they were being paid according to the amount of work that they were doing and it was expected that the productivity of the workers would rise with time (Ornstein and Lunenburg 2008). Researchers found that the workers, instead of doing their best and trying to increase their productivity, established a group norm accepted by all the workers(Ornstein and Lunenburg 2008). They had established a â€Å"standard level of acceptable output† and any worker who produced more was called a â€Å"rate-buster† and persons who produced less than the standard output were called â€Å"chislers† (Ornstein and Lunenburg 2 008 pp.7).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on History of Management Thought specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It was also observed that the raqte busters were being threatened by other workers to reduce their output while the chislers were encouraged to increase their productivity(Ornstein and Lunenburg 2008). This kind of trend should not be alloed in the working environment because this hinder the performance and abilities of the workers who are capable of doing better work. Elton Mayo used the term â€Å"pessimistic reverie† to explain the negative state of mind of the workers which decreased their productivity. Mayo believed that it was the job of the managers to educate workers about the importance of their role and to use positive and relative reveries to concentrate on their work (Mayo 1924). According to Mayo, anything which passed negative vibes was a pessimistic reverie, such as a person who walked awkw ardly across machines stretching was actually exhibiting physical fatigue which was intensified by the reveries (Trahair and Zaleznik 2009). He held the managers responsible for improving the employee’s experience of work and suggested rest breaks to minimize the pessimistic reveries. He was also concerned with the rootlessness of the workers which he called anomie (Whyte and Nocera 2002). Mayo believed that lack of societal norms, i.e. anomie, would lead to isolation which would decrease the motivation of the workers. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) was one of the people who applied theories and scientific management to business in order to produce more value for the stakeholder (Farzaneh 2009). Taylor has written in his book the Principles of Scientific Management, about how the efficiency of the workers can be improved and how management can get rid of the inefficiency of worker by applying scientific principles and laws(Taylor 2008). The findings of Mayo and other researcher s are different from the findings of Taylor because the Hawthorne studies proved that factors the economic ones affected the productivity. These studies proved Taylor wrong and focused more on how the work experience of the employees could be made better instead of just focusing on increased value for the stakeholders by making the employees work more than they can making their work experience negative. The methods of the Hawthorne researchers were also different from those of Taylor. Where Taylor used scientific methods and principles, the Hawthorne researchers studied the psychology of the workers and observed their behavior and what influenced it.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The main contribution of the Hawthorne studies to the history of management thought is that it introduced a whole new dimension to the management techniques and proved that many factors influence the workers not just one as it was previously believed. Another important contribution of the Hawthorne studies is that it revealed that responding to the worries of the workers and paying attentions to their grievance can increase the productivity without any extra expense. It also helped recognize the environmental conditions affecting the productivity of the workers. All these important factors were not known before these studies, hence it is correct to say that the Hawthorne studies revolutionized the management thought it its own way and introduced new concepts. It also acknowledged the importance of the workers psychology in a company and how it can drastically effect the environment and output. List of References Brannigan, A. and Zwerman, W., 2001. The real Hawthornes effect. Societ y, pp.55-60. Cohen, L., 1990. Making a new deal: Industrial workers in Chicago. New York: Press Sundicate of the University of Cambridge. Farzaneh, A., 2009. Management, job satisfactin, and teamwork. Web. Gale, E.A.M., 2004. The Hawthorne studies- a fable for our times?. Oxford Journal Medicine, pp.439-49. Gillespie, R., 1988. The Hawthorne experiments and the politics of experimentation. The rise of experimentation in American psychology, pp.114-37. Mayo, E., 1924. The basis of industrial psychology. Bulletin of the Taylor Society, pp.249-59. Ornstein, A.C. and Lunenburg, F.C., 2008. Educational administration: concepts and practices. Belmont: Cengage Learning. Rice, B., 2010. The Hawthorne defect: Persistence of a flawed theory. Web. Swanson, K., 2006. The success of emplye to management relations at Western Electric Hawthorne plant. Web. Taylor, F.W., 2008. The principles of scientific management. London: Forgotten Book. Trahair, R.C.S. and Zaleznik, A., 2009. Elton Mayo: the hu manist temper. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. Whyte, W.H. and Nocera, J., 2002. The organization man. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Wren, D. and Bedeian, A., 2009. The evolution of management thought. John Wiley Sons. Zerega, Blaise. 2008. Art of knowledge management. InfoWorld, Vol. 20, No. 30, p. 61.

Cultural Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cultural Issues - Essay Example The cultural variety today becomes a very significant issue in the research field of international relations, first of all for the best understanding of laws of social life, an organization of statehood and management in complex communities, prevention and resolution of conflicts. There is no doubt that cultural factor is obviously present in the modern policy of international relations. Robert Garson (â€Å"extra information†) states: â€Å"issues of culture, rights, and justice drive international relations and international politics in a certain direction†. Moreover, according to Garson, culture is very important because: The cultural variety today becomes a very significant issue in the research field of international relations, first of all for the best understanding of laws of social life, an organization of statehood and management in complex communities, prevention and resolution of conflicts. There is no doubt that cultural factor is obviously present in the mo dern policy of international relations. Robert Garson (â€Å"extra information†) states: â€Å"issues of culture, rights, and justice drive international relations and international politics in a certain direction†. Moreover, according to Garson, culture is very important because:†¢ â€Å"It is the key to our social and ultimately individual identity†;†¢ â€Å"if to look at the rhetoric of international politics, that rhetoric is actually wrapped up in cultural phrases. People talk of themselves as being French or Tanzanian or American, they use these identities†;†¢ â€Å"culture is actually one of the organizing principles of most political communities†.For the first time, the question on cultural variety arises in world politics after the First World War I when the countries-winners have formulated the doctrine of self-determination on an ethnocultural basis as the mechanism of the abolition of imperial states of Austria-Hungary, O ttoman Turkey, Imperial Germany and Imperial Russia. A certain formula of "national self-determination" gradually began to gain a foothold as the international norm of state formation.  There was an idea that the society should be culturally homogeneous.